Indian Polity (RRB)

Indian Constitution:

• Adopted: November 26, 1949 (Constitution Day).
• Came into force: January 26, 1950 (Republic Day).
• Drafting Committee chairman: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar ("Father of the Constitution").
• Constituent Assembly first met: December 9, 1946. Permanent chairman: Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
• Took 2 years 11 months 18 days to draft.
• Originally had 395 Articles, 22 Parts, 8 Schedules.
• Currently ~448 Articles, 25 Parts, 12 Schedules (after amendments).

Borrowed features:

• British: parliamentary system, rule of law, single citizenship.
• US: Fundamental Rights, judicial review, written constitution, federal structure.
• Canada: federal system with strong centre.
• Ireland: Directive Principles of State Policy.
• USSR: Fundamental Duties, Five-Year Plans concept.
• Japan: procedure established by law.
• Germany (Weimar): emergency provisions.
• South Africa: amendment procedure.

Preamble declares India to be:

• Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic. (Socialist + Secular added by 42nd Amendment, 1976).
• Aims: Justice (social, economic, political), Liberty (thought, expression, belief), Equality (status, opportunity), Fraternity.

Three branches of government:

1. Legislature — Parliament:

   • Rajya Sabha (Council of States, upper house): up to 250 members; 12 nominated by President; rest elected by State Legislative Assemblies. 6-year term (1/3 retire every 2 years). Vice-President is ex officio chairman.
   • Lok Sabha (House of the People, lower house): up to 552 members (current 543); directly elected. 5-year term. Speaker presides.

2. Executive — President + PM:

   • President: ceremonial head; elected by electoral college of MPs and MLAs. 5-year term. 14th President (current as of 2026): Droupadi Murmu (took office 25 July 2022).
   • Vice-President: 5-year term; chairs Rajya Sabha.
   • Prime Minister: head of government; leader of majority party in Lok Sabha. Real executive authority.
   • Council of Ministers: PM + Cabinet Ministers + MoS + Deputy Ministers.

3. Judiciary — Supreme Court → High Courts → District Courts.

   • Supreme Court: 1 Chief Justice + up to 33 other judges. Judges retire at 65.
   • High Court: at least one per state; some shared. Judges retire at 62.

Six Fundamental Rights (Part III, Articles 12–35):

1. Right to Equality (Articles 14–18).
2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22) — speech, assembly, movement, etc.
3. Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24) — no forced labour, no child labour.
4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28).
5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30) — minorities can establish institutions.
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32) — habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari, quo warranto.

Right to Property removed by 44th Amendment (1978); now Article 300A (legal right, not fundamental).

Right to Education added by 86th Amendment (2002) — Article 21A: free education for children 6–14.

Fundamental Duties (Article 51A): 11 duties (10 originally + 1 added by 86th Amendment). Includes respecting Constitution, national flag, anthem; protecting environment; etc.

Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV, Articles 36–51): non-justiciable but fundamental to governance. Include welfare state, prohibition, free legal aid, environment, international peace.

Election Commission of India (Article 324):

• Established Jan 25, 1950 (National Voters' Day).
• Currently 3 members: 1 CEC + 2 ECs.
• Conducts elections for Parliament, State Legislatures, President, Vice-President.
• CEC has same status as Supreme Court judge; can be removed only by impeachment.

Important constitutional bodies:

• CAG (Comptroller and Auditor General) — Article 148.
• UPSC (Union Public Service Commission) — Article 315.
• Election Commission — Article 324.
• Finance Commission — Article 280 (constituted every 5 years).
• Attorney General — Article 76.

Statutory bodies (created by Acts of Parliament): NHRC, NCW, NITI Aayog (replaced Planning Commission in 2015), CBI, ED, CVC, Lokpal.

Schedules of the Constitution:

• 1st: States and UTs.
• 2nd: Salaries of officials.
• 3rd: Oaths.
• 4th: Allocation of seats in Rajya Sabha.
• 5th: Tribal areas in mainland.
• 6th: Tribal areas in NE.
• 7th: Centre-State subjects (Union list, State list, Concurrent list).
• 8th: Recognized languages (22 currently).
• 9th: Land reform laws (protected from judicial review since Kesavananda Bharati case).
• 10th: Anti-defection law (added by 52nd Amendment, 1985).
• 11th: Panchayati Raj functions (73rd Amendment, 1992).
• 12th: Municipal functions (74th Amendment).

Important amendments:

• 1st (1951): added 9th Schedule.
• 7th (1956): reorganized states.
• 42nd (1976) — "Mini Constitution": added Socialist, Secular, Integrity to Preamble; Fundamental Duties; many others.
• 44th (1978): reversed parts of 42nd; removed Right to Property as Fundamental Right.
• 52nd (1985): anti-defection law.
• 61st (1989): voting age 21 → 18.
• 73rd & 74th (1992): Panchayati Raj and Urban Local Bodies.
• 86th (2002): RTE (Right to Education) for ages 6–14.
• 101st (2016): GST.
• 103rd (2019): 10% EWS reservation.

Emergency provisions:

• National Emergency (Article 352): on grounds of war, external aggression, or armed rebellion. Imposed thrice (1962, 1971, 1975–77).
• State Emergency / President's Rule (Article 356): when state govt cannot function constitutionally.
• Financial Emergency (Article 360): never imposed.

Major government schemes (as of 2026):

• PMJAY (Ayushman Bharat): health insurance up to ₹5 lakh per family.
• PMAY: housing for all.
• PM Kisan Samman Nidhi: ₹6,000/year to farmers.
• Ujjwala Yojana: LPG connections.
• Swachh Bharat Mission: sanitation, ODF.
• Make in India: manufacturing.
• Digital India: e-governance.
• Skill India: training youth.
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao: girl child education.
• National Education Policy 2020: replaces 1986 policy.

Judicial doctrines:

• Basic Structure doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati case, 1973): Parliament can amend Constitution but cannot alter its basic structure.
• Judicial review: courts can strike down laws inconsistent with Constitution.